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Liam Hogan
Opinion
The unfree Irish in the Caribbean were indentured servants, not slaves
It’s a myth there were ‘Irish slaves’ in Barbados. As difficult as white servants’ experiences were, enslaved Africans were the people treated as livestock.
This is an op-ed by Liam Hogan, Laura McAtackney, and Matthew Connor Reilly. They write in response to what they call the myth of “Irish slaves” in the New World, which has recently entered the mainstream via social media.
This myth, conflating indentured servitude with racialised chattel slavery, has helped poison much of the public discourse about the legacy of the transatlantic slave trade, they said.
Today, they examine what is arguably the closest point between white servitude and black slavery, mid-17th century Barbados, and conclude that even there, these two forms of unfree labour cannot be equated.
A SPURIOUS GlobalResearch.ca article, first published in 2008, claims that an “Irish slave trade” was initiated in 1612 and abolished in 1839. It states that “Irish slaves” were treated worse than African slaves.
This article, which has been shared online at least one million times, is underpinned by a conspiracy theory which claims that “biased” historians are refusing to call indentured servants “slaves” for political reasons.
The fallout has been predictable. The myth is now a favoured derailment tactic for people who wish to shut down conversations about race and slavery. Many African Americans attest to encountering this myth, in person and online.
‘White slavery’
As the conversation about reparatory justice continues in the US and the Caribbean, those who proclaim the history of “white slavery” now claim a shared heritage of victimisation. They thus aim to vindicate themselves and their ancestors from any involvement in the processes of racial inequality or oppression in the past and the present.
map of Barbados taken from Richard Ligon's true & exact history of the island of Barbados, published in 1657, but set in 1647-1650. Public Domain
Public Domain
One Confederate flag store owner referred to “hundreds of thousands of white slaves from Ireland and Scotland that were sent to Barbados” in a bid to deflect from the fact his ancestors fought a war to perpetually enslave millions of black Americans and their descendants.
As this notion spreads, responsible historians should be prepared to respond. We know that Europeans who were forcibly deported from England, Scotland and Ireland to the Caribbean in the mid-17th century cannot be accurately described as “slaves.” They were indentured servants.
The difference is not merely a matter of words. Colonial servitude was temporary and non-hereditary, with legal personhood, while colonial slavery was perpetual and hereditary, with sub-human legal status. Rather than academic “quibbling,” the differences between these two forms of unfree labour are of fundamental importance to our understanding of the development of chattel slavery in the British colonies.
The word ‘slave’
If we refer to two different statuses in the same historical context using the same term (“slave”) the meaning becomes conflated.
To be sure, the conditions of white servants in Barbados shocked English observers into drawing an analogy with slavery. Jerome Handler has translated the invaluable account of a French priest, Father Antoine Biet, who visited Barbados in 1654 and lamented how poorly the white servants were treated.
According to Biet, some of the white families who were deported to the colony were split up, purposefully sold to different planters as part of their punishment.
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Liam Hogan
Liam Hogan
Other first-hand accounts indicate that servants were fed a relatively scant diet, were prodded with sticks if they did not work fast enough and lived in basic accommodation—all hardships that were also experienced by enslaved Africans during the same period of time.
Indentured servants in Barbados
If a white servant assaulted another servant or a slave, it was treated as a misdemeanor and they were fined. If they assaulted their master they were whipped. Their indenture was legal property therefore a servant’s remaining time could be left in wills, traded for commodities and sold. Since one’s labour is inseparable from one’s person, this meant indentured servants in Barbados were treated as a sort of commodity.
The distinction between voluntary and involuntary indentured servitude is also important, but all too often serves as justification for the existence of “white slavery”.
It is true that some Europeans, particularly prisoners of war or political prisoners, were sent to places like Barbados against their will and without a predetermined period of servitude.
However, upon arrival, those without contracts were, by law, required to serve the master who purchased their labour for a limited number of years, depending on their age. It is also true that many servants didn’t live to see the end of their period of servitude due to brutal treatment and unsparing work regimens, but while under the conditions of servitude, they were subject to the same laws that governed European servants, not enslaved Africans.
Enslaved Africans were treated as livestock
As difficult as white servants’ experiences were, however, enslaved Africans were treated as livestock. According to Ligon they were “bred” along with the “horses and cattle.“ Their right to life did not fall under English common law; it was essentially forfeit.
A plan of the French slave ship, La Marie Séraphique (c. 1770). Public Domain
Public Domain
Enslaved Africans who assaulted any “Christian,” regardless of the white person’s status, were severely punished under assorted methods of torture. Biet notes he said saw a poor Negro woman perhaps forty years old, whose body was full of scars which she claimed had been caused by her master’s [applying] the fire-brand to her.”
In short, the earliest laws of Barbados, beginning in the 1640s and provided in detail in 1661, carefully spelled out the legal distinctions between slavery (as reserved for “Negroes”) and servitude (as reserved for Europeans).
Irish slaves narrative
Moreover, what underlines the historiographical vandalism of the “Irish slaves” narrative is that the Irish were also involved in the inhumane treatment of enslaved Africans.
As Biet made his way across the island he was befriended by an Irishman who was likely an overseer on a larger plantation. In his description he said:
“He had in irons one of these poor Negroes who had stolen a pig. Every day, his hands in irons, the overseer had him whipped by the other Negroes until he was all covered with blood. The overseer, after having had him treated thus for seven or eight days, cut off one of his ears, had it roasted, and forced him to eat it.”
In fact, the 1661 slave laws allowed any person in the colony (including Irish servants) to kill an enslaved African who was in the act of stealing. The killer would be rewarded with sugar and the owner would be compensated out of the public purse.
While Barbados had very few Irish planters, the colony of Montserrat is important to include in our discussions of not only the idea of the “white slave” but also the role of the Irish in the transatlantic slave trade.
As the only island in the Caribbean during this period whose white population was a majority Irish, Montserrat offers a pertinent and contained case-study in which to consider their roles and experiences.
Irishmen first arrived after being expelled by the British from St Kitts in the 1630s and they remained the major white population until at least the late 18th century. Irish people filled every level of social strata and religious persuasion on Montserrat, from indentured servant up to governor: they represented both the colonised and colonisers.
Evidence from government records, court records and private papers show that Irish landowners were often enthusiastic exploiters of the African slave trade. Their laws and court records reveal stark distinctions between the status and treatment of white indentured servants (also usually Irish) and black chattel slaves.
These distinctions matter a great deal, both then and now.
Liam Hogan, an independent scholar and librarian, tweets at @Limerick1914. Laura McAtackney (@LMcAtackney) is an associate professor in sustainable heritage management (archaeology) at Århus University, Denmark. Matthew Connor Reilly is a postdoctoral fellow in archaeology and the ancient world at Brown University.
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@Justin Gillespie: he had no choice. The health infrastructure was on its knees. Few icu beds so they had to lock us down or people would be dying on the streets. Lets see what happens with testing.
@roberto Mankini: far from it. it was the same his paddys night speech. a stack of posts critical of leo that didnt break the rules were removed just after they appeared
@Logan Shepherd: I looked earlier and there were comments that were negative about our great leader and now they have them removed and replaced by positive comments about our great leader.
@We Love Katamari: dont’ dwell on it. the journals leo love-in continues. there’s the illusion of balance and objectivity in the moderating until FGs media unit put on a set piece like this evening.
@Shane Fitzgibbon: did you read my post. The health service was on it knees before this crisis. If we wernt locked down the hospitals wouldnt be able to cope.
@Logan Shepherd: methinks the issue was the comment wasn’t a ‘hail leo’ and was hugely popular. It was the runaway top post, but it wasn’t singing leos praise so it had to go. @ thejournal: way to reflect the will of the people
@Dermo Adams: and that’s what happened in the election just hone. People can see all the spin. They aren’t stupid. People are here for the comments only.
@Brian Madden: yep, the lockdown was absolutely the right call. The lack of testing and contact tracing (as well as lack of checks at ports or airports) had been appalling though.
@Larkin About: 1500 likes and still counting. Go on, congratulate the number one poster. With such a level of support aigurs well for the future and we can all celebrate the rise in support for a government doing a good job in the circumstances.
Join in.
Not being able to spell the small awkward words is worse than not being able to spell the big ones.
I saw the post in question. It was by a country mile the most popular and getting a huge number of thumbs up, while the current ‘number one poster’ was coming in a distant second. Regardless, if a comment is not contravening the comments policy, it should not be removed. It’s disrespectful to the person taking the time and effort to post it.
@The Risen: Posting on an old Nokia not to be recommended. Your guidance on spelling so appreciated.
As to removal of comments it sucks but that’s life. Nearly as bad as being removed from posting.But shucks people can arise and come back from the tomb. Not trying to take a rise out of you.
@Shane Fitzgibbon: |The hospitals are empty due to the fact that all non emergency hospital stays are cancelled and people are not going to the ER or their doctors from fear of catching the virus.
ICU and HDU are the important areas during this crisis. they cannot be overloaded and they were not.
@John O Brien: An economic crash will kill far more long term in all kinds of way but hey everything is ok….and by the way another wave will hit after this one no matter what we do now its nailed on.
@Martina Dolan: all the replies I expected however this virus is going nowhere and deaths are inevitable unfortunately but there will be worse lasting effects on people than the virus you can be sure the longer they put these restrictions on.
Relax. It’s a learning curve. The Black Death killed 25% -30% of Europeans over 500 years ago. And no one had a glimmer about the why and how. 100 years ago the Spanish flu took a shit load of lives albeit moderated with some degree of modern science and an understanding of contagion. Fast forward to the 21st century where within a few weeks of the virus being detected it’s GENOME is sequenced and distributed to the top universities and research centres to prime the search for a vaccine and / or treatment. Now people are saying “when will we get a vaccine” while they stay at home , watch the TV, get some exercise and perhaps order the odd take away. In Ireland most of us are at the apotheosis of historical human experience. Grab a beer and watch Narcos :-)
@Walt Kowalski: I can genuinely say that in the 42years I’m alive, I have never drawn a single penny of social welfare of any description.
I am self employed and yip we are in for a tough time financially, for a long time when this virus is over. It ain’t going to be pleasant and it will be tough, But I would much prefer to be alive and that all my customers are alive to witness the tough times ahead..
So go back into your box pal.
@Kevin: well said. There was some blather on the radio of the mental health of our children. A few days ago the first Israeli to die of C-19 was an 88 year old man. When he was 15 he spent a year hiding in cellars and haystacks from people who zealously wanted to kill him. Our kids have Playstation and takeaways……..
Good man Leo! Regardless of what the shinnerbots on here say, the leadership shown in this country has been exceptional compared to our neighbours on both sides. Proud to be Irish today
@A2 Poster: In fairness, the government message has been clear and assertive with a dash of empathy…. compare that with the mixed conflicting messages coming from UK or Murica government. We all know exactly what our job is and how to move this country forward collectively to get up and running safely.
@A2 Poster: the health service was on its knees
They had to lock us down as there were very few icu beds. They kept the borders open. They forgot about the nursing homes. Look at Denmark and Norway. Exceptional goes to them
Mediocre goes to us and abysmal goes to our neighbours.
@A2 Poster: I’m proud to be Irish every day. I don’t need the Taoiseach’s speech to make me proud of my country. It’s our frontline workers who fill me full of pride.
@Brian Madden: What he did, she did, they did, is a great game, what we did, with what we had is what matters.
Yes they made mistakes everybody does, in comparison to other countries we have done really well. The numbers are terrible but could have been a hell of a lot worse.
We flattened the curve and kept it done, we are staying locked down to give ourselves room and to watch other countries reopen.
Germany and Japan did and had major problems.
So unusually enough we are taking our time.
@Johnny 5: It caught every country out. It is a part of the health system that can not be sold off to private companies.
There are some horror stories coming out about care home and institutions across the world.
What was wrong is the system and that needs to change and he said that.
@Unconvertible Rebel: clown, we’re on the road to recovery now, you can stop making this about politics now. We’ve flattened the curve and saved lived. Don’t be such a troll
@Unconvertible Rebel: What could be gained by strategically leaking the main points ? I’m certain Leo would have liked to been the one to break the news. No benefit to him to have it leaked.
@Johnsinker: over 70’s were always allowed leave their homes like everyone else, and really what guard has every checked if you went over 2k? 5k makes no difference, 5 phases with no indication of what each phase is with the possibility of going backwards! It was all 100% spin, the last phase is august 10th but schools can’t open until October! Is that a 6th phase he forgot to mention?
Spin spin spin,
@Jay Munnelly: he said schools and collages will be Sept/Oct so in other words they won’t be returning before summer holidays. The Sept would be referring to schools and October to colleges. He also indicated that phase one of return to work would be constriction, gardeners, hardware shops, with the possibility of small groups netting outdoors and some sporting activities being allowed. Did you not bother to listen or read what he said?
@A2 Poster:
So just let me get this straight, anybody that disagrees with your rose tinted views of milk & honey is a clown or troll.
Leopard never changes it’s spots does it !!.
Some people don’t trust or believe your st Leo & co.
Get over it !!!!.
@Unconvertible Rebel: governments in countries all over the world for years give the press a preview but ask not to publish until everything in place. Do you know snow how this works?
@Justice Mickey: bitter person, we’re almost coming out of this and you can’t say anything positive? After what we’ve all done to make this happen? The sacrifices people have made to turn the corner? You’re a disgrace
@A2 Poster:
GAGF .
Would you like me to go down on bened knee to him !!!.
I am as entitled to my opinion as the likes of you and your ilk.
Don’t like it pass it over.
@Fergus O’Connor: dear Leo… I have a cat who has aids.. All he wants to do is go to the back of the shops and hang out with his mates. But he knows if he just sits by the window and coughs fur balls to himself he’s saving lives… Six million when you do the cat calculations. Thanks Leo . Your amazing.
@James Fenlon: Meanwhile in Europe the countries worst hit will be back in full swing months ahead of us and we’ll be financially devastated once again.
Our ever increasing dependence on the EU will be copper fastened due to our exponential sovereign debt burden and our masters will get whatever they want.
Great news, but knowing over 70s they will be too scared or nervous to move very far, I can’t fault leo and the restrictions in place, the figures seem to be going up or not getting better,.. Stay safe
@David Dineen: I will have the opposite issue with my father. He’s going to want to visit every hardware store within 5km. It should have been exercise only for over 70′s
@David Dineen: Lidl had bedding plants yesterday morning.. couldn’t get near them with the amount of over 70s. Think most of them can look after themselves and know what they need to do. ;-)
@Gary O CONNOR: yes I agree no one in the media asking how many tests are being done everyday when they are giving us the number of new cases and deaths
None of this would have happened if the population took the virus seriously to begin with. They still crowded into pubs when they knew what was occurring abroad, then crowded into bookies and barbers when the pubs shut. People had the audacity to even argue it wasn’t the shops responsibility to clean and disinfect trollies and baskets after each use. With the recent videos circulating social media, its highlighted the minoritys spread of idiocracy has cost this country not only a great deal of embarrassment, but lives and money and untold hardship on those on the front lines. We as a population are as responsible as those in government.
@Jake Fontaine: none of this would have happened if the government took this seriously at the beginning.. there the ones getting paid to make the big decisions not wait til is so bad we have to go into Lockdown..
We were screaming at the government to shut down the pubs when there were 40 new cases per day. There are currently over 200 new cases per day, and look at the number of people giving out about 2 more weeks.
Jessica, who is in a wheelchair, who my spin team fabricated, is keeping her spirits up by reading Seamus Heaney poems and making PPE for the frontline heros
@Hector Son: what is that. Someone who can take advice from Tony o Holohan and spin in in a way that it looks like his decisions. He has no moral authority after the election results yet he clings to it it like the viper he is.
A lot of people on here complaining just for the sake of complaining.
The address was straight forward and to the point. Now maybe those that are complaining want the hysterical ranting that they get from Trump or the long winded waffle they Boris spews.
We got a time line, we got the facts unadorned. Now we know where we stand.
@We Love Katamari: The saying ” taste of your own medicine comes to mind “.
With 1500 ,likes and counting the support for this caretaker government aigurs well for our future.
@Darragh O Meara: perhaps to continue to restrict too much movement over a bank holiday weekend. More a psychological barrier than a physical one. If they did it sooner we’d all be rushing out on the 15th of May…..
@Darragh O Meara: over 70s could always go out. This is rubbish. They were advised to cocoon. Now they are advised that they may go out when it’s quiet. Why not treat them as mature adults. Are they supposed to go out in the middle of the night?
@Celtic Kid: Us done more tests than the rest of the world combined. Trump is putting millions into the acceleration of the development of a vaccine and the major hotspot in America is New York where people virtually live on top of eachother
@#JUSTICE4NOEL: What makes you think that ? I’m a Sinn Fein voter. Happy enough that Leo is following the scientific advice and informing us of that advice in a timely manner.
it was exposed that Gerry Adams covered up rape pedophilia because his niece Áine refused to sign the court injunction , i wonder how many other things Gerry and his comrades have covered up down through the years?
@Macker: can you explain the phraseology you object to and consider “scripted”? Please explain the phrases you substitute in also. I’m curious as to what specific words have you so aggrieved
@Seamus Balfe: I have no political affiliation, and we don’t know the answer to that. Regardless of who gave that speech tonight, I would have preferred a stronger, more confident delivery.
@Seamus Balfe: SF would have taken the exact medical advice on board like leo did. Tony holohan is running the show. FG ran the health service into the ground. One of the lowest rates of icu beds in europe. We had to be locked down or people would be dying on the streets
@Seamus Balfe: Why don’t you tell us Seamus? Tell us why also. You think Mary Lou isn’t capable of of listening to the experts? Do you think she would have ignored all that and not had a lockdown at all and left the health system collapse? Is that what you think or are you just using this is an excuse to bash them. We are not doing that great if a job when you compare to other countries. Comparing to boris and trump is pointless by the way. That’s a very very low bar.
@L̴a̴yta R̵̝̹̣̦̞̺͈͖͂̋̊̐͌͘̕͠͠ǒ̴͍̱̝̰͔̋͆̓͛͗n̶̊͌: More to do with profit I’d say.
One medium term lock down and carefully easing out of it is going to cost less than a short lockdown followed by another longer one after a vicious second wave??
@Mill Lane: That’s a good perspective, behind the curtain they may have balanced the scales of projection where the long game saves lives & money.
Revealing this plan in advance would probably lead to outrage. Good point.
If you get a link saying free porn don’t opin it. Its a virus wich deactivates your spelcheck and fcuks up your riteing. I also receibed it but luickily I don’t uatch porn so I dint opin it. Please warm yur friends. Wanks
@Andy mc Laughlin: posted that earlier made a few people laugh.. thought I’d put it up again to lighten the mood of the doom and gloom commentators on here.. hope it gives people a chuckle
Hi everyone, can we please be kind in our comments going forward… mental health is a bigger issue now and will be into the future. Negativity is not good at the moment. Leo is doing his job and it’s a hard one for him…. as it would be for anyone in government at the moment… #staysafe #bekind
@Gigi Power: Well said I posted an honest opinion on another article earlier and was called every name under the sun because of a lack of intelligence to respond with integrity and respect by certain quarters of the Journals finest hatchet men.
well done leo. good to see the spin continuing. make sure you don’t list any specifics like number of cases, numbers in ICU, reproduction number etc at which restrictions are relaxed, just keep peddling operation fear, e.g. ‘back to square one’ nonsense. hopefully you can cope with those probing questions from ryan tonight.
@Dermo Adams: talk about the CCP, only in the ha’penny place with this crowd, I may, may not agree with what you have to say but I will defend your right to say it…
I think Leo needed to acknowledge the overwhelmed nursing homes sector and the number of deaths there as well as the huge lack of staff there and the exhausted remaining staff who are trying to cope as so many colleagues are off in self isolation or not able to come to work for health or family reasons . The health service is not just the acute sector healthcare workers . The nursing homes is where the huge extra help is needed now to combat the outbreaks , the deaths and the spread .
@mary o dwyer: I thought he showed poor leadership in not recognising where mistakes were made. But the Fine Gael bots will tell you they’re doing a wonderful job while our elderly are abandoned in care homes that require extra staff and PPE.
@mary o dwyer: I think not telling school kids to isolate for 2 weeks after skiing in italy might be a big mistake as well as not allowing visits to nursing homes. my mums home in england stopped allowing visits well before lockdown here. touch wood no cases yet.
@The Risen: omg, I just flashed through the comment section, I never realized how pro Leo the journal was to now. So much for freedom of speech if your anti government comments are either going to be deleted or assaulted by pro FFG brigade. But hey this will probably never make it up on the comment section.
Big Picture here. Nobody wants a stop start economy or a virus to spiral out of control. We all want normality to resume but ensuring a safer environment for us all is more important. Least we have a plan and programme to getting us up and running.
While I’m in no big hurry to relax restrictions, I can’t help thinking that if the greens had agreed to enter government, there would have been more. I imagine major easing won’t happen until after a government has been formed.
This is a mad plan and only so because of lack of testing and contact tracing . Only outdoors workers allowed out in May 18th & last stages in August !!!! We will all be unemployed by the end of this for Christ’s sake !
The restrictions were always going to be at least a few weeks added on. I understand people will not be pleased by this but we have to get on with it and not do what that crackpot in America has done.
So no checks on borders? Not even temperature checks just let the virus back in at will. I think there only one answer to this madness.
Let’s all have a party, let’s all have a party. Na na na na oh na na na na oh.
While practicing social distancing and washing our hands of course. I’d like to see the virus that can survive in Irish whiskey. That Scotish ditch water would be a different matter.
What are the 3 phases?? It was a long speech but not very clear… What about the leaving cert students? How will that go ahead if phase 3 (whatever that entails) is not until 10th August!!! Very vague…
@DeeM: the leaving cert logistics are still to be worked out. Schools will need to know ratios allowed re social distancing planning. There are many factors involved such the number of supervisors being required
@Caddyshack: Crazy that it’s even going ahead… It should be cancelled. If it goes ahead we could end up with more clusters except this time amongst 17 and 18 year olds who then bring it back to their families and so on and so forth. It’s not a level playing field. Some kids have access to PCs others don’t. Some schools are providing great support others aren’t or are unable to!! Some students like my son have a severely compromised immune system and can’t go anywhere near anybody now and certainly couldn’t go into a school.. Even if he was put in a room on his own to take his exams.. He would be at risk. So clarity is needed now if they are to put the mental health of leaving cert students foremost.
@DeeM: yes huge difficulties & the lack of clarity is a serious concern for students but it’s best to stay positive with leaving cert students & deal with the present facts that the LC going ahead as stated on 29th July. Other accommodations can be arranged with students with health conditions if necessary & schools will be able to plan when update on exams given. Unfortunately with this disease there are no easy answers or solutions for students like everyone else. Self certification from schools may be a solution but it’s not a perfect solution either for many reasons
@Diarmuid: he’s taking questions on the Late Late show other than that I suggest you do like those that contacted him did write a letter. You might even get your name read out live on air.
I think Leo needed to acknowledge the nursing homes sector as they are working so hard there now due to the virus affect on their residents which his speech failed to acknowledge even if unintended .
I think Leo needed to acknowledge the overwhelmed nursing homes sector as well as the lack of staff there now due to the virus and the exhausted remaining staff who are trying to cope as so many colleagues are off in self isolation or not able to come to work for health or family reasons . The health service is not just the acute sector which his speech made it sound like
1st : We need affordable face mask for everyone, and price control.
2nd We need to test massively people : EVERYONE!, like South Korea ( for free!!!!)
3th Obligation to wear face mask outside!
“The world economy is heading into something even worse than the Great Depression. We need to ask questions , i would ask what was worse for humanity, the spanish flu 100 years ago or the great depression 10 years later. Let’s just recall what happened after the great depression.. political collapse in many countries ultimately lead to the second world war. We’re going into the mother of all depressions. What’s happening right now is the scariest thing i have ever seen. The economy is simply collapsing. Economic collapse will make what happened in 2008 look like a blip. That is happening right now ”
I think Leo is showing great leadership but these restrictions are heart breaking. It’s been 54 days since my teenage son has been home with me because he had been permanently living with his father since the schools shut, his father is cocooning himself on account of his diabetes.
Anyone know what sport in small groups from 18th May might mean apart from the obvious sports like golf, tennis etc..? Are football teams allowed back & what will be the definition of small be?
@Shane Fitzgibbon: |The hospitals are empty due to the fact that all non emergency hospital stays are cancelled and people are not going to the ER or their doctors from fear of catching the virus.
ICU and HDU are the important areas during this crisis. they cannot be overloaded and they were not.
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These cookies may be set through our site by our advertising partners. They may be used by those companies to build a profile of your interests and show you relevant adverts on other sites. They do not store directly personal information, but are based on uniquely identifying your browser and internet device. If you do not allow these cookies, you will experience less targeted advertising.
Functional Cookies
These cookies enable the website to provide enhanced functionality and personalisation. They may be set by us or by third party providers whose services we have added to our pages. If you do not allow these cookies then these services may not function properly.
Performance Cookies
These cookies allow us to count visits and traffic sources so we can measure and improve the performance of our site. They help us to know which pages are the most and least popular and see how visitors move around the site. All information these cookies collect is aggregated and therefore anonymous. If you do not allow these cookies we will not be able to monitor our performance.
Store and/or access information on a device 149 partners can use this purpose
Cookies, device or similar online identifiers (e.g. login-based identifiers, randomly assigned identifiers, network based identifiers) together with other information (e.g. browser type and information, language, screen size, supported technologies etc.) can be stored or read on your device to recognise it each time it connects to an app or to a website, for one or several of the purposes presented here.
Personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development 195 partners can use this purpose
Use limited data to select advertising 158 partners can use this purpose
Advertising presented to you on this service can be based on limited data, such as the website or app you are using, your non-precise location, your device type or which content you are (or have been) interacting with (for example, to limit the number of times an ad is presented to you).
Create profiles for personalised advertising 119 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service (such as forms you submit, content you look at) can be stored and combined with other information about you (for example, information from your previous activity on this service and other websites or apps) or similar users. This is then used to build or improve a profile about you (that might include possible interests and personal aspects). Your profile can be used (also later) to present advertising that appears more relevant based on your possible interests by this and other entities.
Use profiles to select personalised advertising 120 partners can use this purpose
Advertising presented to you on this service can be based on your advertising profiles, which can reflect your activity on this service or other websites or apps (like the forms you submit, content you look at), possible interests and personal aspects.
Create profiles to personalise content 51 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service (for instance, forms you submit, non-advertising content you look at) can be stored and combined with other information about you (such as your previous activity on this service or other websites or apps) or similar users. This is then used to build or improve a profile about you (which might for example include possible interests and personal aspects). Your profile can be used (also later) to present content that appears more relevant based on your possible interests, such as by adapting the order in which content is shown to you, so that it is even easier for you to find content that matches your interests.
Use profiles to select personalised content 48 partners can use this purpose
Content presented to you on this service can be based on your content personalisation profiles, which can reflect your activity on this or other services (for instance, the forms you submit, content you look at), possible interests and personal aspects. This can for example be used to adapt the order in which content is shown to you, so that it is even easier for you to find (non-advertising) content that matches your interests.
Measure advertising performance 177 partners can use this purpose
Information regarding which advertising is presented to you and how you interact with it can be used to determine how well an advert has worked for you or other users and whether the goals of the advertising were reached. For instance, whether you saw an ad, whether you clicked on it, whether it led you to buy a product or visit a website, etc. This is very helpful to understand the relevance of advertising campaigns.
Measure content performance 78 partners can use this purpose
Information regarding which content is presented to you and how you interact with it can be used to determine whether the (non-advertising) content e.g. reached its intended audience and matched your interests. For instance, whether you read an article, watch a video, listen to a podcast or look at a product description, how long you spent on this service and the web pages you visit etc. This is very helpful to understand the relevance of (non-advertising) content that is shown to you.
Understand audiences through statistics or combinations of data from different sources 111 partners can use this purpose
Reports can be generated based on the combination of data sets (like user profiles, statistics, market research, analytics data) regarding your interactions and those of other users with advertising or (non-advertising) content to identify common characteristics (for instance, to determine which target audiences are more receptive to an ad campaign or to certain contents).
Develop and improve services 116 partners can use this purpose
Information about your activity on this service, such as your interaction with ads or content, can be very helpful to improve products and services and to build new products and services based on user interactions, the type of audience, etc. This specific purpose does not include the development or improvement of user profiles and identifiers.
Use limited data to select content 51 partners can use this purpose
Content presented to you on this service can be based on limited data, such as the website or app you are using, your non-precise location, your device type, or which content you are (or have been) interacting with (for example, to limit the number of times a video or an article is presented to you).
Use precise geolocation data 65 partners can use this special feature
With your acceptance, your precise location (within a radius of less than 500 metres) may be used in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Actively scan device characteristics for identification 36 partners can use this special feature
With your acceptance, certain characteristics specific to your device might be requested and used to distinguish it from other devices (such as the installed fonts or plugins, the resolution of your screen) in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Ensure security, prevent and detect fraud, and fix errors 122 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
Your data can be used to monitor for and prevent unusual and possibly fraudulent activity (for example, regarding advertising, ad clicks by bots), and ensure systems and processes work properly and securely. It can also be used to correct any problems you, the publisher or the advertiser may encounter in the delivery of content and ads and in your interaction with them.
Deliver and present advertising and content 126 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
Certain information (like an IP address or device capabilities) is used to ensure the technical compatibility of the content or advertising, and to facilitate the transmission of the content or ad to your device.
Match and combine data from other data sources 94 partners can use this feature
Always Active
Information about your activity on this service may be matched and combined with other information relating to you and originating from various sources (for instance your activity on a separate online service, your use of a loyalty card in-store, or your answers to a survey), in support of the purposes explained in this notice.
Link different devices 67 partners can use this feature
Always Active
In support of the purposes explained in this notice, your device might be considered as likely linked to other devices that belong to you or your household (for instance because you are logged in to the same service on both your phone and your computer, or because you may use the same Internet connection on both devices).
Identify devices based on information transmitted automatically 116 partners can use this feature
Always Active
Your device might be distinguished from other devices based on information it automatically sends when accessing the Internet (for instance, the IP address of your Internet connection or the type of browser you are using) in support of the purposes exposed in this notice.
Save and communicate privacy choices 103 partners can use this special purpose
Always Active
The choices you make regarding the purposes and entities listed in this notice are saved and made available to those entities in the form of digital signals (such as a string of characters). This is necessary in order to enable both this service and those entities to respect such choices.
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